Thursday, April 19, 2007

Comte de Buffon (c. 1749) came up with a whole new radical idea on evolution. He came to a conjecture that all living things evolved because of natural laws. It is proposed that man and apes are related. He was then forced to give up his hypothesis as it was opposing the narrative of Moses at that time. It was not believed that all man descended from the same ancestor. Buffon refused to accept that the Noah’s flood ever occurred, and that some animals retained vestigial parts in their bodies, implying that, animals evolved instead of being created spontaneously. Because of this, he was condemned from Catholis churches and his books were burnt.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (c. 1809) suggested that living creatures evolved to become much complex creatures over time. Lamarck’s theory was somewhat similar to Darwin. The similarity is that creatures are altered according to their environment and the challenges they have to overcome. Lamarck believed that species disappeared did so because they have evolved in to other organisms, not extinction. If this goes on for a prolonged period of time, it would mean that the perfection of a specie determines its chances of survival. When the environment changes, the needs of the organisms changes, thus causing change in the organism’s behavior. However, Lamarck believed that acquired traits through use or disuse are passed down to the next generation, while Darwin’s theory proposed that evolution is due to natural selection. He believed that the fittest survived, thus causing the evolution.

Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) believed that not species of animal had ever been extinct because God’s creation has been perfect. He was skeptical of the mechanisms of change that Lamarck and Geoffery Saint-Hilaire proposedl. His commitment to the principle of interdependence of parts in an organism caused him to doubt that any mechanism could ever significantly modify any part of an animal in isolation from all the other parts. He did not believe in organic evolution as he believed that any change to any part of an organism would render it unable to survive. Similarities found in creatures were due to common need and function, not due to common ancestry. The form that an animal takes is determined by its functions.

What are the main ideas of Darwin’s theory?
Darwin’s theory of natural selection is founded on his numerous observations on life and animals. From those observations, he formulated his own ideas on natural selection.

Darwin’s theory goes on to elaborate that one of the major aims for all species is to reproduce and survive, and in so doing, they pass on the genetic information of the species from generation to generation. This drive for life encourages the species to reproduce much more than the available amount of resources in the environment to sustain and support them.

As different species are made up of varying genetic makeup due to the genes passed on to them from their parents and the almost regulated genes from their species, there are countless varieties of organisms consuming everything which is able to sustain their survival, and those with genes which are most compatible to the requirements of the environment will be seen as the fittest and will be able to survive even in tough competition for the same resources.

The lack of resources to nourish these individuals places pressure on the size of the species population, and the lack of resources means increased competition and as a consequence, some organisms will not survive.

The organisms, which died as a consequence of this competition, were not totally random organisms. Darwin later found out that those organisms that did not die and survived were more fitted to their environment and were more likely to survive even with tough and strong competition for food, water, shelter, and mates. Those organisms that died were due to the fact that they did not have that particular trait which enables them to acquire an important need, as shown in Darwin’s Finches where the finches each had their own special traits like their beak shape and size in order for them to survive and thrive in that environment where the type of food is most commonly found. Hence, the individuals which did not have the much-needed trait for survival in that particular environment migrated or were eliminated.

When those without that particular trait were destroyed by predators, the fittest organisms, which have traits that gave them an edge to successful survival in that specific environment, are likely to survive and pass on those traits to succeeding generations. As the generations go by, the traits which do not facilitate in helping the organisms were slowly being eliminated through the generations, and the trait which is most suitable and beneficial to the species’ survival will be found in most organisms after many generations if the environment were to stay in its original conditions from the start of the first batch of newly evolved species.

Also, as the differences between the different species of organisms accumulated, the populations of organisms start to diverge from their ancestors.

The findings resulted in the well-known phrase “survival of the fittest”, where the organisms most adjusted to the environment had more chance and ability of survival if the species falls upon hard times like droughts, floods where their basic needs are becoming scarce fast and they have to do their best to conserve whatever they have.

The elimination of less fit organisms and the prize of successful survival to those who are fit to live in that specific condition lead Darwin to deduce that the organisms had evolved over time to suit the conditions they were living in, where the most desirable traits of a species are favoured and those organisms which exhibit them will manage to survive and pass their genes on to the next generations.

As a result, a changing environment would mean different traits would be desirable in a changing environment. Darwin believed that organisms had evolved to suit their environments so as to have the best chance of survival.

In conclusion, the traits or alleles of a species that are favoured in the particular environment will be more frequent in the genetic makeup of the future generations of organisms due to the higher likelihood that the “fittest” organisms will form the largest group of survivors of the species.

What examples were used to support his theory?

Darwin's Finches

One of the most well-known examples which Darwin used to support his theory is that of the finches found in the Galapagos Islands, aptly called Darwin’s Finches because it was Darwin who noticed the patterns in the finches and concluded that they were a good example of a product of a part of natural selection called adaptive radiation where one species gives rise to multiple species that take advantage of different niches and thrive in that specific environment.

The ecological niches exert selection pressures that push the populations in various directions. On the various islands of the Galapagos Islands, finch species have become adapted for different diets: seeds, insects, leaves, fruits and cactus. The different environments caused the beaks of the finches to differ. The different finches have beaks of differing shapes and sizes, all which assisted them to get more or as much food than they could before. They have evolved over time to be best adapted to their environment.

The grub-consuming finches have thin, extended beaks so that they can easily poke into holes in the ground and extract the grubs and get food as fast as possible. Finches, which feed on buds and fruits, would not be as successful due to their large beaks which can crush their food swiftly and give them a selective advantage in their environment where buds are the only real food source for finches. While cactus-eating finches have longer and sharper beaks so as to prevent being attacked at by the thorny leaves of the cactus, the warbler finch has a long and thin probing beak which allows it to sing songs in higher pitch so that it can find mates easily.

The difference in the beaks allowed the specific type of finch to manipulate the abundance of food in the specific environment and therefore it is a major factor for their successful survival. It is seen that their survival is largely dependant on their beak structure that had to be best adapted for the most abundant food.

Industrial Melanism and Peppered Moths

An example of evolution resulting from natural selection was discovered among peppered moths living near English industrial cities in the 19th century. At that time, the buildings and tree trunks were often covered in soot that made them a darker colour.

The peppered moths, which were a lighter colour than that of the tree trunks, were easily spotted by predators when they rested on them. They were more visible on a dark background and were exposed to predators. Due to their inability to blend into the environment, they were eliminated faster than that of darker-coloured moths by predators and the chances for their survival and reproduction were very slim as compared to the darker coloured ones.

Those with a darker colour were not as easily spotted as they had the ability to blend into the environment and were almost the same colour as the tree trunks. The darker coloured moths were not as easily seen as compared to those light-coloured ones as they had the advantage of camouflage. Hence, the darker coloured moths were able to live long enough to reproduce and pass on the genetic trait that enabled the ancestors of the darker coloured moths to survive.

Over the generations, the environment still favoured darker moths and hence there were more dark-coloured peppered moths than before, as the lighter moths were not able to survive under conditions that needed them to be able to be unseen from predators. As a result, they progressively became more common. Every generation saw an increase in the number of dark coloured moths and decrease in light coloured moths. By 1895, around 98% of the moths in that vicinity of English cities were mostly black. There were still survivors of light coloured moths but they were disappearing fast.

Around 1950s, air pollution controls were put in place and they significantly reduced the amount of soot that made the trees and buildings dark in coloured. The buildings were also cleaned and the colour was lightened. It made the trees and buildings a much lighter colour and now, the natural selection favours the light coloured moths instead of the dark coloured moths due to a drastic change in environmental conditions. Hence, it was observed that the darker coloured moths decreased and the number of light coloured moths increased.

In essence, the main reason for the decline of the moths is the change in environment conditions. Natural selection favours the darker moths in polluted environments and the whiter moths in the lesser-polluted environments due to their ability to blend in with their environmental colours and lessen the chances of them being eliminated by predators. There were other minor factors that influenced the population of light and dark coloured moths.

Sickle Cell Trait
The sickle cell trait is an occurrence in the presence of a recessive allele coding for haemoglobin, a substance in the blood responsible for the transport of gases like oxygen. The individual will either have no traits of sickle cell, have a recessive allele of sickle cell (a carrier of the allele), or sickle cell anemia (full blown). It minimizes the intake of oxygen for the body.

Near to 1.2 million people die from the disease in areas of Africa which was hard-hit by malaria. It was found that near to 40% of the people there either had a recessive allele or full-blown disease. Further research showed that those with the recessive trait or the full-blown sickle cell anemia were immune to the effects of malaria.

The sickle trait provides the body with “resistance” to malaria. In the body of a person who has a recessive allele, the red blood cells, containing some abnormal hemoglobin, tend to sickle when infected by the malaria parasite. Those infected cells are then eliminated, bringing the unwanted parasite along.

Hence, it could be inferred that those who were able to survive and reproduce were mostly people with the recessive sickle allele as those with the full-blown sickle anemia and those who contracted malaria were often sick and die early, hence being unable to reproduce.

This leads to an increase of people with recessive alleles for sickle cell genes. For parents with the sickle cell recessive gene, there is a higher chance (50%) of their child having the same recessive allele and 25% each of not getting the allele and getting the full blown disease.Although sickle cell trait and anemia are not advantageous characteristics on their own, they prove to be advantageous in their own ways in preventing the contracting of malaria that is a greater threat than anemia.

Commentary by Dr. Ng Kaichi (26), Evolution Opponent, P.H.D in Biology, Harvard University:

Darwin's theory is about biological evolution, which is a process that results in heritable changes in a population spread over many generations. Darwin believes that natural selection plays a part in evolution. In his hypothesis, it is stated that the characteristics found in a certain type of animal is influenced by the physical environment and it is all about the ‘survival of the fittest’ in nature. There are variations of certain inheritable traits in animals, for example,the different lengths and shapes of the beaks of a certain species of birds. If birds feed on the nectar of plants, the birds with the long and thin beaks will survive as the 'fittest' because they are able to get to the nectar more easily than the birds with have short and thick beaks. Thus, more birds with long and thin beaks will survive and the population of birds with short and thick beaks will dwindle. Therefore, the trait of the parent bird with long and think beaks will be passed on to the next generation. This is the idea proposed by Darwin's theory on evolution and natural selection.

However, there have been controversies surrounding Darwin's evolution theories even till today. Recently, in Russia, on 22nd February, a 16 year old student filed a court case, claiming that teaching the theory of evolution in her school had violated her rights and insulted her religion. In addition, the article from mosnews.com has also written that many lawsuits have been filed in the USA, challenging Darwin's belief that humans have descended from apes. Many people believe that human beings are highly complex creatures, thus they are most likely created by higher forces, such as god. Thus, religion would be involved in the creation of organisms on earth.

Currently, there are conflicting views between creationism and Darwinism. Creationism is based on the bible, where it is believed that god is the driving force of the creation of creatures. Moreover, creation scientists believe that evolution is impossible because it violates the second law of thermodynamics, which is the universal law of increasing entropy in a closed environment. According to ‘A Brief History of Time’ by Stephen Hawking, it is stated that “the entropy of two combined system is greater than the sum of the entropies of the individual system.” If entropic decay is involved in every system, then development of life and the idea of evolution are questionable as the beginnings of life stemmed from DNA from chemosynthesis. This means that the cell was found near volcanoes or sea vents which are closed systems and thus the development would definitely have been subjected to entropic decay. The evolved life forms should have died out, however, they continued thriving and increasing in complexity, continuing to evolve to other organisms. Thus, creation scientists have come up with their own theories.

There are three different branches of creation science, which is 1. Young Earth Creation Science, 2. Old Earth Creation Science and 3. Theistic view.

1. Young Earth Creation Science.
Supporters of creation scientists (which is around 44% of the public, 5% of which are scientists) believe that God created the universe during 6 consecutive days of 24 hours each, and He rested on the 7th day. They also believe that God had created all the various animals which are present on earth today and that they are descendants of the animals which were created during creation week. Thus implying that the life forms on earth have never evolved, rather, animals like dinosaurs were created with all other animals and dinosaurs coexisted with humans on earth until they became extinct. People who support this view believe that all the rock fossils, volcanoes etc were formed during the great fold of Noah, thus it can be seen their interpretation of the bible is literal.

2. Old Earth Creation Science
Supporters (under 7% of public support) believe that each day in the Genesis could have been longer than 24 hours and there very long gaps between one or more days. It is also believed that the Earth and the universe were created by God many billions of years ago. In addition, it is believed that the types and species of animals were predetermined; no new species are being created but minor changes within a particular type or species have taken place. Moreover, it is believed that dinosaurs were created just before humans, but they became extinct first.

3. Theistic View
In this view, it is stated that the universe is about 15 billion years old and the Earth’s crust developed around 4.5 billion years ago. It is believed that God had caused the first living cell to appear on the face of Earth. God had steered evolution, thus humans are able to evolve from lower life forms. It is believed that the human soul is a special creation of God.

In contrast to creation science, scientists have the same beliefs as for the Theistic View, except that they assume that God or other deities do not play a part in the process. They believe that the changes in the universe and evolution were caused by natural forces.

The creation scientists feel that their beliefs can be proven right as they are based on their interpretation of the Bible. However, scientists feel that their beliefs can be proven as they are based on much research and observation. Evidence from geology, paleontology etc have shown that the Earth and the universe have been in existence for more than 10 000 years and fossils have proven that not all types and species of animals existed on Earth at the same time. Fossil records have proven that simple forms of life appeared first and they evolved to more complex forms, for example, according to Darwinism, single-celled organisms evolved into the first invertebrates, however, invertebrate fossils appear suddenly without any visible ancestors. It is apparent that from the Darwin’s theory, the species make a smooth transition from one species to another. Yet, there is no evidence of transition fossils which link the evolution of one species to another thus the theory is questionable.

Moreover, organisms can only evolve if their genes allow them to, thus their genes have to go through certain mutations for them to evolve into another organism. Dr Lee Spetner (taught information theory for a decade at Johns Hopkins University and the Weizman Institute) studied mutations on a molecular level and found out that mutations did not increase the genetic information but reduced it instead. If Darwin’s theory was true, then all life began from a single organism and mutations caused it to produce every trait of life on Earth. However, mutation removes genetic information from the DNA code, thus causing defects, therefore it is not very possible for mutations to cause evolutions and Darwin's theory is doubtful.

Some scientists also believe that evolution is too complex to have happened in a step by step process. For example, our blood starts to clot when we have a cut and the process of blood clotting is complex, requiring numerous proteins. However, each protein requires an enzyme to activate it. Did the enzyme of protein evolve first? If the enzyme had evolved first, it would not serve a purpose as there is not protein for it to work on. On the contrary, if the protein evolved first, creatures would have bled to death before it was perfect step by step. This implies that both proteins and enzymes came about together and the only way for that to happen is for them to be created.

In the US courts, Supreme Court ruled against a Louisiana law mandating equal time for creationism, however, the question of how to teach the theory of evolution was reopened in Ohio. Two representatives from the Discovery Institute in Seattle, the main sponsor and promoter of intelligent design: Stephen Meyer, a professor at Palm Beach Atlantic University's School of Ministry and director of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture, and Jonathan Wells, a biologist presented their case for creationism. They argued that biological life contains very complex elements and cannot be explained by natural selection, thus they must products of a higher force.

Commentary by Dr. Crystalbel Foo (11), Science Investigator, P.H.D. in Life Sciences, University of Yale:

Introduction
In summary, the evidence for evolution comes from numerous sources:

1) Evidence from Paleontology
2) Evidence from Comparative Anatomy
3) Evidence from Geographical Distribution of Related Species
4) Evidence from Comparative Biochemistry
5) Evidence from Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance

Evidence from Paleontology
Fossils are the remains of past organisms embedded within rocks through natural processes. When fossils are compiled together, they provide direct evidence of evolutionary history by revealing the ancient environments of past organisms and providing clues to global changes. Fossils also support the evolutionary theory that all organisms are descended from a common ancestor, and adapt continuously to their environment as they do so.

Methods of Fossil Dating
There are two main methods of fossil dating: firstly, fossils can be dated according to different rock layers, as seen in the picture on the right. Because deeper rock layers were laid down earlier, they would contain the earliest fossils, whereas the highest layers would hold the more recent fossils. The second form of fossil dating is through radioactive decay, and is considered to be much more accurate than the first method mentioned.

Transitional forms and their Significance
By arranging the available fossils chronologically, some fossil remains reveal transitional forms between two species over a period of geological time. For example, the Archaeopteryx was early evidence of an intermediate species between dinosaurs and birds.

Thus, fossils support the theory of descent with modification by showing that changes in organisms have been continually occurring, and it is these changes which result in the biodiversity of life. The intermediate states of change between the ancestor and its descendants can be shown in transitional species. Therefore, transitional forms can be said to provide the connection between different groups of organisms.

Complexity of fossil structures
In addition, older fossils are often limited in number and have simpler body structures, whereas younger fossils are available in greater varieties with increasingly complex structures. Therefore, fossil evidence again supports the evolutionary theory that a population of organisms undergoes certain changes over time. Advantageous traits are more likely to persist than disadvantageous traits; with the many environmental changes, organisms would likely develop increasingly complicated physical adaptations in order to gain a survival edge.

Limitations of the Fossil Record
However, there are still limitations to the use of fossil records as evolutionary evidence. A lack of continuous fossils results in large gaps present between major evolutionary lineages. Reasons for this incompleteness of fossil records include both the low probability of fossilization after death, and the fact that some fossils could have been destroyed through erosion and tectonic movement.

Evidence from Comparative Anatomy
If all life has a common origin, species which have diverged from a common ancestor should be physically similar to each other, and the degree of resemblance should indicate how closely related two organisms are. Also, groups with few common traits should have diverged from a common ancestor much earlier as compared to groups with many similar traits.

Homologous Structures
In deciding how closely related two organisms are, they are examined for homologous structures, that is, structures that are fundamentally similar even though they may appear different and serve different functions. One example of such structures is the pattern of limb bones known as the pentadactyl limb, found in all classes of tetrapods (e.g. bats, whales, moles, humans, etc...).

Homologous structures suggest a common origin, as they cannot be explained by functional needs. Since there is no functional reason for the similar body parts, the most logical explanation would be that the organisms inherited these homologous structures from a common ancestor. Hence, this supports the evolutionary theory that all life has a common ancestor, and traits of successive generations are inherited from this ancestor.

However, although homologous structures are fundamentally similar, slight modifications to the structures continue to exist, as can be seen in the pictures at the right. This is because the organisms reside in different living environments, therefore having different requirements to survive. Hence, this point demonstrates also the effect of natural selection, which continuously evolves organisms to survive best in their environment, resulting in a biodiversity in life on Earth.

Embryological Development
Some of the strongest anatomical evidence supporting evolution also originates from the comparison of how organisms develop. In many cases, the evolutionary history of an organism is seen to unfold during its embryonic development, with the embryo showing characteristics of the embryos of its ancestors. For example, human embryos possess gill slits early in embryonic development, just like fish embryos. However, when lungs are developed, these gills disappear.

This embryonic similarity probably occurred because the similar traits were inherited from a common ancestor, resulting in similar gene sequences that are active in early developmental stages. Because we do not require gills for survival in our environment, other organs needed for survival begin to develop and the gills are 'discarded'. Therefore, due to extremely diverse environmental conditions of all living organisms, natural selection promotes biodiversity of life.

Vestigial Organs
Another aspect of comparative anatomy is the presence of vestigial organs, that is, degenerated or underdeveloped organs that are simpler in structure than corresponding parts in the ancestral species. Some examples of such organs would include the vestigial wings of the ostrich and the vestigial hind wings of flies and mosquitoes.

Vestigial structures are evolutionary remnants, and show that evolution can allow certain structures to either lose their original function or slowly evolve away, depending on the organism's current environment. Since vestigial organs have no functional reason for existence, the most plausible explanation would be that they were inherited from a common ancestor. Due to environmental changes, the organs were once functional in the ancestral species have now become unnecessary and non-functional.

Conclusion
Therefore, all the major anatomical similarities between living things discussed above can be most logically accounted for by the explanation that they inherited these traits from a common ancestor that possessed such traits. Hence, the evidence from comparative anatomy does support the evolutionary theory that all organisms on Earth share a common ancestor.

Geographical Distribution of Related Species
The evolutionary theory explains that biological diversity is resulted from the descendants of local or migrant predecessors adapting to their physical environments by changes in physical anatomy, etc… Therefore, evidence that species without an established local ancestry had migrated into the locality should be present.

Case Study of Hawaii
One example is the population of species present in Hawaii. Hawaii is exclusively home to more than 1000 species of snails and hard mollusks, and approximately 500 species of flies belonging to the genus Drosophilia. The reason for this diversity of related species in remote locations is due to their evolution from a few common ancestors which colonized an isolated region, in this case, Hawaii. The few colonizers which did reach Hawaii found many ecological niches, where they underwent evolutionary changes over numerous generations undisturbed. The scientific explanation for the absence of certain organisms on Hawaii is that many other species never reached the island due to geographical isolation.

Isolation from Continental Drift
Another form of isolation is through continental drift: the same varieties of fossils are found from areas known to once be adjacent to each other, but are now in different locations due to continental drift. The descendants of these organisms can sometimes be identified and show great similarity to each other, even though they now inhabit different environments.

Conclusion
Therefore, the geographical distribution of species is important evidence in the evolutionary theory. It enhances the theory by providing the evidence of the migration of species without an established local ancestry into the environment, hence accounting for the logical occurrence of such species in the environment, and dispelling the myth that they could have been individually created by an omniscient being.

Evidence from Comparative Biochemistry
The development of molecular genetics has enabled biologists to study the record of evolution left in the genetic structures of various organisms. ATP is the metabolic currency by all life, and proteins in all organisms are composed of the same 20 aminoacids. In addition, the genetic code is used to translate nucleotide sequences is identical for all living organisms. This unity in composition and function is a powerful argument in favor of the evolutionary theory of common descent.

Variance of Protein Sequences
One example of the biochemical evidence for evolution is the variance of the protein Cytochrome C in cells. This variance in Cytochrome C between organisms is measured in the number of differing aminoacids, and can help to calculate how long ago the divergence between two species occurred.

Therefore, this comparison of protein sequences allows organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity to reconstruct their lineages, and the resultant phylogenetic trees usually agree with observations derived from paleontology and comparative anatomy about the lineage of the organism. In fact, sequence comparisons are considered measures strong enough to strengthen or correct taxonomic classification even when other forms of evidence are scarce.

Pseudogenes
An additional line of evidence involves pseudogenes, which are remnants of non-functional genes contained in DNA as “excess baggage”. With functional genes, the similarity between genes from different organisms could due to similar ways of life. However, this explanation is invalid in the case of pseudogenes, as they perform no function. Therefore, it is very likely that the degree of similarity between pseudogenes reflects the evolutionary relatedness; the earlier two organisms diverged in the phylogenetic tree, the more different their pseudogenes.

Reasons why the Evolutionary Theory is Accepted
The main reason for the acceptance of the theory of evolution by natural selection is because it is widely supported by much evidence. Inferences made from these evidences as mentioned above all appear to agree with the evolutionary theory as they prove the existence of life in past geological ages, and that organisms are constantly evolving to be better suited to their environment. This constant change to suit specific environments also results in the vast biodiversity of life on Earth.

Another reason for the wide acceptance of the theory of evolution due to natural selection is because there are actually examples of currently ongoing evolution that can be observed. For example, the current development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (e.g. vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) are evidence for the evolution of species through natural selection in situations of selection pressures. Scientists have also carried out experiments for artifical selection in laboratories or agriculture, providing a model for natural selection. Therefore, since the scientific world can actually "observe" evolution happening, they would naturally be more likely to accept the occurrence of the theory of evolution.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, 3 out of the 4 experts strongly supported the teaching of the theory of evolution to school children in Singapore during Science Classes, as it is a theory founded from many years of historical study, and is supported by overwhelming amounts of evidence, whether it be in the forms of fossils, comparative anatomy, geographical distribution, comparative biochemistry, or even modern ongoing examples of evolution itself. It is a major unifying concept in the study of Biology, and Dr. Livia Lim, Evolution Expert, even commented that "Biology simply cannot be taught well without covering evolution". Teaching evolution is essential for covering one of the most basic concepts of science. Like all scientific theories, it explains the natural world by building on observations which can be loggically tested and analyzed.

By allowing the students to gain more knowledge about the possible methods living organisms were created, it will hence instill a greater appreciation for the wonders of the life around them. Furthermore, the teaching of the evolutionary theory will allow the students to achieve the level of scientific literacy which they require in order to better contribute to the scientific world when they come of age.

However, Dr. Ng Kaichi, the Evolution Opponent opposed strongly towards the teaching of the evolutionary theory in Singapore during the event today. She emphasized the fact that the theory contradicted certain other concepts such as that of creation science and the second law of thermodynamics, hence surfacing flaws in the theory of evolution itself. Creation science is based on the concept that on omniscient being(s), that is, one or more gods, are the driving force of the creation of creatures. As can be seen in her report above, at least approximately 51% of the public is against the theory of evolution due to natural selection. In addition, Dr. Ng also raised the point that the teaching of the evolutionary theory in Singapore might result in racial or religious discomfort as it contradicts the very foundations of religion itself: that an omniscient being created the living things present on Earth today.

At the end of the event after considerable debate and several catfights, the team of experts finally concluded Curriculum Revision 2007 by making the following statements in view of whether to teach the theory of evolution in Singaporean schools:

1) The Singaporean Science curriculum should include the theory of evolution as part of its lesson plans. The evolutionary theory should be emphasized on its importance as a unifying concept in science and its overall explanatory power.

2) However, students should also be taught alternatives to the theory of evolution, such as the concept of creation science and how it contradicts the theory of evolution, with the individual free to accept whichever concept he or she chooses to believe is true.

3) The professional responsibility of Science teachers and adminstrators to provide students with quality scientific education should not be compromised by censorship or inconsistencies.

4) It has been noted that many teachers are reluctant to teach evolution due to pressures from specific groups to downplay or eliminate it from the curriculum. The widespread misunderstandings about evolution are of great concern to the Ministry. Adminstrators and school boards should provide support to teachers as they implement curricula concerning the teaching of evolution. They should include professional development to assist teachers in teaching evolution in a comprehensive and professional manner. Academic freedom should be upholded at all times.

Bibliography:
Historian
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection#Pre-Darwinian_theories
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/religion/revolution/index.html
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/evothought.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought

Evolution Expert
http://www.biology-online.org/2/10_natural_selection.htm
http://www.allaboutscience.org/theory-of-natural-selection-faq.htm
http://books.nap.edu/html/creationism/evidence.html
http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_2.htm
http://www.biology-online.org/2/11_natural_selection.htm
http://www.evolutionhappens.net/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/selection/selection.html
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/l_016_02.html
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/evolution/genetics/naturalselection.html

Evolution Opponent
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/evolution.html
http://www.tdtone.org/darwin/Index.html
http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=21776
http://www.thetartan.org/2006/2/6/scitech/evolution+
http://www.mosnews.com/news/2007/02/22/darwinwins.shtml
http://www.americanthinker.com/2005/08/the_case_against_darwin.html
http://dnablognetwork.com
http://accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/images/xtremo.jpg
http://www.sos.bangor.ac.uk/~oss109/bubble.JPGhttp://www.hras.org/sw/swnov04a.jpg

Scientific Investigator
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_evolution
http://books.nap.edu/html/creationism/evidence.html
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/lines_01
http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/
http://www.gate.net/~rwms/EvoEvidence.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution
http://www.txtwriter.com/backgrounders/Evolution/EVcontents.html
Singapore Biology Books for 11th Grade and 12th Grade/GCE A Level

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19.4.2007:
In the recently concluded Curriculum Revision 2007, the MOE has cordially invited four experts to discuss the benefits of teaching evolution; a historian, evolution expert, evolution opponent, and science investigator. Read more...